Mention in README.md the need for the iftex package and how to get it.

[ibg.git] / chapters / 09.rst

===============================
 William Tell: the end is nigh
===============================

.. highlight:: inform

.. epigraph::

   | |CENTER| *Q was a queen, who wore a silk slip;*
   | |CENTER| *R was a robber, and wanted a whip.*

.. only:: html

   .. image:: /images/picQ.png
      :align: left

|Q|\uite a few objects still remain undefined, so we'll talk about them
first.  Then, we'll explain how to make additions to Inform's standard
repertoire of verbs, and how to define the actions which those verbs
trigger.

The marketplace
===============

The ``marketplace`` room is unremarkable, and the ``tree`` growing there
has only one feature of interest:

.. include:: /config/typethis.rst

::

   Room      marketplace "Marketplace near the square"
     with    description
                 "Altdorf's marketplace, close by the town square, has been hastily
                  cleared of stalls. A troop of soldiers has pushed back the crowd
                  to leave a clear space in front of the lime tree, which has been
                  growing here for as long as anybody can remember. Usually it
                  provides shade for the old men of the town, who gather below to
                  gossip, watch the girls, and play cards. Today, though, it
                  stands alone... apart, that is, from Walter, who has been lashed
                  to the trunk. About forty yards away, you are restrained by two
                  of the vogt's men.",
             cant_go "What? And leave your son tied up here?";

   Object    tree "lime tree" marketplace
     with    name 'lime' 'tree',
             description "It's just a large tree.",
             before [;
                FireAt:
                  if (BowOrArrow(second) == true) {
                      deadflag = 3;
                      print_ret "Your hand shakes a little, and your arrow flies
                          high, hitting the trunk a few inches above Walter's
                          head.";
                  }
                  return true;
             ],
     has     scenery;

The tree's :prop:`before` property is intercepting a :act:`FireAt` action,
which we'll define in a few moments.  This action is the result of a
command like SHOOT AT TREE WITH BOW -- we could simulate it with the
statement ``<<FireAt tree bow>>`` -- and it needs extra care to ensure that
the :var:`second` object is a feasible weapon.  To deal with silly commands
like SHOOT AT TREE WITH HELGA, we must test that :var:`second` is the bow,
one of the arrows, or ``nothing`` (from just SHOOT AT TREE).  Since this is
quite a complex test, and one that we'll be making in several places, it's
sensible to write a routine to do the job.  Which we'll do shortly -- but
first, a general introduction to working with routines.

.. index::
   single: arguments (of a routine)

.. _working-with-routines:

A diversion: working with routines
==================================

.. Generated by autoindex
.. index::
   pair: each_turn; library property

A standalone routine, like the familiar routines embedded as the value of a
property such as :prop:`before` or :prop:`each_turn`, is simply a set of statements
to be executed.  The major differences are in content, in timing, and in
the default return value:

* Whereas an embedded routine has to contain statements which do something
  appropriate for that associated property variable, a standalone routine
  can contain statements which do anything you wish.  You have total
  freedom as to what the routine actually does and what value it returns.

* An embedded routine is called when the interpreter is dealing with that
  property of that object; you provide the routine, but you don't directly
  control when it's called.  A standalone routine, however, is completely
  under your control; it runs only when you explicitly call it.

.. Generated by autoindex
.. index::
   pair: false; library constant
   pair: true; library constant

* If an embedded routine executes all of its statements and reaches the
  final ``];`` without encountering some form of ``return`` statement, it
  returns the value :const:`false`.  In the same circumstances, a standalone
  routine returns the value :const:`true`.  There's a good reason for this
  difference -- it usually turns out to be the natural default behaviour --
  but it can sometimes baffle newcomers.  To avoid confusion, we've always
  included explicit ``return`` statements in our routines.

What this generally boils down to is: *if* you have a collection of
statements which perform some specific task *and* you need to execute those
same statements in more than one place in your game, *then* it often makes
sense to turn those statements into a standalone routine.  The advantages
are: you write the statements only once, so any subsequent changes are
easier to make; also, your game becomes simpler and easier to read.  We'll
look at some simple examples; first consider these unexciting foodstuffs::

   Object     "stale ham sandwich"
     with     name 'stale' 'ham' 'sandwich',
              description "It doesn't look at all appetising.",
              ...

   Object     "elderly jam doughnut"
     with     name 'elderly' 'jam' 'jelly' 'doughnut' 'donut',
              description "It doesn't look at all appetising.",
              ...

The :prop:`description`\s are identical: perhaps we could display them using a
routine?  ::

   [ Inedible; print_ret "It doesn't look at all appetising."; ];

   Object     "stale ham sandwich"
     with     name 'stale' 'ham' 'sandwich',
              description [; Inedible(); ],
              ...

   Object     "elderly jam doughnut"
     with     name 'elderly' 'jam' 'jelly' 'doughnut' 'donut',
              description [; Inedible(); ],
              ...

This isn't a very realistic approach -- there are more elegant ways of
avoiding typing the same string twice -- but it works, and it illustrates
how we can define a routine to do something useful, and then call it
wherever we need to.

Here's another simple example showing how, by returning a value, a routine
can report back to the piece of code which called it.  We've once or twice
used the test ``if (self has visited) ...``; we could create a routine
which performs that same check and then returns :const:`true` or :const:`false` to
indicate what it discovered::

    [ BeenHereBefore;
        if (self has visited) return true;
        else                  return false;
    ];

Then, we'd rewrite our test as ``if (BeenHereBefore() == true) ...``; no
shorter or quicker, but maybe more descriptive of what's going on.  One
more example of using routines.  As well as testing ``if (self has visited)
...`` we've also tested ``if (location has visited) ...`` a few times, so
we *could* write another routine to perform that check::

    [ BeenThereBefore;
        if (location has visited) return true;
        else                      return false;
    ];

.. Generated by autoindex
.. index::
   pair: location; library variable
   pair: self; library variable

However, the two routines are very similar; the only difference is the name
of the variable -- :var:`self` or :var:`location` -- which is being checked.  A
better approach might be to rework our ``BeenHereBefore`` routine so that
it does both jobs, but we somehow need to tell it which variable's value is
to be checked.  That's easy: we design the routine so that it expects an
:term:`argument`::

    [ BeenToBefore this_room;
        if (this_room has visited) return true;
        else                       return false;
    ];

Notice that the argument's name is one that we've invented to be
descriptive of its content; it doesn't matter if we define it as "``x``",
"``this_room``" or "``hubba_hubba``".  Whatever its name, the argument acts
as a placeholder for a value (here, one of the variables :var:`self` or
:var:`location`) which we must supply when calling the routine::

    if (BeenToBefore(self) == true) ...

    if (BeenToBefore(location) == true) ...

.. Generated by autoindex
.. index::
   pair: visited; library attribute

In the first line, we supply :var:`self` as the routine's argument.  The
routine doesn't care where the argument came from; it just sees a value
which it knows as ``this_room``, and which it then uses to test for the
:attr:`visited` attribute.  On the second line we supply :var:`location` as the
argument, but the routine just sees another value in its ``this_room``
variable.  ``this_room`` is called a :term:`local variable` of the
``BeenToBefore`` routine, one that must be set to a suitable value each
time that the routine is called.  In this example routine, the value needs
to be a room object; we could also check an explicit named room::

    if (BeenToBefore(mid_square) == true) ...

Remember that:

#. All routines terminate sooner or later, either because you explicitly
   write a ``return``, ``rtrue`` or ``rfalse`` statement, or because
   execution reaches the ``]`` marking the routine's end.

#. All routines return a value, which can be :const:`true`, or :const:`false`, or any
   other number.  This value is determined by the ``return``, ``rtrue`` or
   ``rfalse`` statement, or by the the ``]`` marking the routine's end (in
   which case the default STEF rule applies: Standalone routines return
   True, Embedded routines return False).  We gave this example of an
   embedded routine in :ref:`adding-props`.  The ``return false`` statement
   is redundant: we could remove it without affecting the routine's
   behaviour, because the ``]`` acts like a ``return false``::

        found_in [;
            if (location == street or below_square or south_square or
                mid_square or north_square or marketplace) return true;
            return false;
        ],

   .. Generated by autoindex
   .. index::
      pair: true; library constant

   On the other hand, just because a routine returns a value doesn't mean
   you always *have* to use it; you can simply ignore the value if you want
   to.  The ``TooFarAway`` routine that we showed you earlier in this
   chapter contains a ``print_ret`` statement and so always returns
   :const:`true`, but we didn't take any notice; the sole purpose of the routine
   was to display some text.  Compare this with the ``BeenToBefore``
   routine, which does nothing *except* return a value; if we'd ignored
   that, then calling the routine would have been a waste of time.

For some embedded routines, the value returned by the routine is important;
for others it doesn't matter.  We've so far seen the following properties
whose value can be an embedded routine:

=========================   ===========================
Return value is important   Return value doesn't matter
=========================   ===========================
``after [; ... ],``         ``cant_go [; ... ],``
``before [; ... ],``        ``description [; ... ],``
``found_in [; ... ],``      ``each_turn [; ... ],``
``n_to [; ... ]``, et al    ``initial [; ... ],``
=========================   ===========================

For full details on which library property values can be embedded routines,
and which return values are significant, see :ref:`object-props` and
:dm4:`Appendix §A2 <sa2.html>` of the |DM4|.

Return to the marketplace
=========================

.. Generated by autoindex
.. index::
   pair: FireAt; library action

After all that introduction, finally back to the :act:`FireAt` action.  We
want to check on the characteristics of an object, possibly then displaying
a message.  We don't know exactly *which* object is to be checked, so we
need to write our routine in a generalised way, capable of checking any
object which we choose; that is, we'll supply the object to be checked as
an argument.  Here's the routine:

.. include:: /config/typethis.rst

::

     [ BowOrArrow o;
         if (o == bow or nothing || o ofclass Arrow) return true;
         print "That's an unlikely weapon, isn't it?^";
         return false;
     ];

The routine is designed to inspect any object which is passed to it as its
argument ``o``; that is, we could call the routine like this::

     BowOrArrow(stallholder)
     BowOrArrow(tree)
     BowOrArrow(bow)

Given the ``bow`` object, or any object which we defined as class
``Arrow``, it will silently ``return true`` to signify agreement that this
object can be fired.  However, given an object like Helga, the apple or the
tree, it will print a message and ``return false`` to signify that this
object is not a suitable weapon.  The test that we make is::

     if (o == bow or nothing || o ofclass Arrow) ...

which is merely a slightly shorter way of saying this::

     if (o == bow || o == nothing || o ofclass Arrow) ...

The result is that we ask three questions: Is ``o`` the ``bow`` object?
*Or* is it ``nothing``?  Or, using the ``ofclass`` test, is it any object
which is a member of the ``Arrow`` class?

.. Generated by autoindex
.. index::
   pair: before; library property
   pair: false; library constant
   pair: second; library variable

What this means is that the value returned by the call ``BowOrArrow(bow)``
is :const:`true`, while the value returned by the call ``BowOrArrow(tree)`` is
:const:`false`.  Or, more generally, the value returned by the call
``BowOrArrow(second)`` will be either :const:`true` or :const:`false`, depending on
the characteristics of the object defined by the value of the variable
:var:`second`.  So, we can write this set of statements in an object's
:prop:`before` property::

     if (BowOrArrow(second) == true) {
         This object deals with having an arrow fired at it
     }
     return true;

and the effect is either

* :var:`second` is a weapon: ``BowOrArrow`` displays nothing and returns a
  value of :const:`true`, the ``if`` statement reacts to that value and executes
  the following statements to produce an appropriate response to the
  fast-approaching arrow; or

* :var:`second` isn't a weapon: ``BowOrArrow`` displays a standard "don't be
  silly" message and returns a value of :const:`false`, the ``if`` statement
  reacts to that value and ignores the following statements.  Then

* in both cases, the ``return true`` statement terminates the object's
  interception of the :act:`FireAt` action.

.. Generated by autoindex
.. index::
   pair: deadflag; library variable

That whole ``BowOrArrow()`` bit was rather complex, but the rest of the
:act:`FireAt` action is straightforward.  Once the tree has determined that
it's being shot at by something sensible, it can just set :var:`deadflag`
to 3 -- the "You have screwed up" ending, display a message, and be done.

Gessler the governor
====================

There's nothing in Gessler's definition that we haven't already
encountered:

.. include:: /config/typethis.rst

::

   NPC      governor "governor" marketplace
     with   name 'governor' 'vogt' 'Hermann' 'Gessler',
            description
                 "Short, stout but with a thin, mean face, Gessler relishes the
                   power he holds over the local community.",
            initial [;
                 print "Gessler is watching from a safe distance,
                      a sneer on his face.^";
                 if (location hasnt visited)
                      print_ret "^~It appears that you need to be taught a lesson,
                          fool. Nobody shall pass through the square without paying
                          homage to His Imperial Highness Albert; nobody, hear me?
                          I could have you beheaded for treason, but I'm going to
                          be lenient. If you should be so foolish again, you can
                          expect no mercy, but this time, I'll let you go free...
                          just as soon as you demonstrate your archery skills by
                          hitting this apple from where you stand. That shouldn't
                          prove too difficult; here, sergeant, catch. Balance it on
                          the little bastard's head.~";
            ],
            life [;
               Talk:
                 print_ret "You cannot bring yourself to speak to him.";
            ],
            before [;
               FireAt:
                 if (BowOrArrow(second) == true) {
                      deadflag = 3;
                      print_ret "Before the startled soldiers can react, you turn
                          and fire at Gessler; your arrow pierces his heart,
                          and he dies messily. A gasp, and then a cheer,
                          goes up from the crowd.";
                 }
                 return true;
            ],
     has    male;

Like most NPCs, Gessler has a :prop:`life` property which deals with
actions applicable only to animate objects.  This one responds merely to
:act:`Talk` (as in TALK TO THE GOVERNOR).

Walter and the apple
====================

Since he's been with you throughout, it's really about time we defined
Walter:

.. include:: /config/typethis.rst

::

  NPC      son "your son"
    with   name 'son' 'your' 'boy' 'lad' 'Walter',
           description [;
                if (location == marketplace)
                    print_ret "He stares at you, trying to appear brave and
                        remain still. His arms are pulled back and tied behind
                        the trunk, and the apple nestles amid his blond hair.";
                else
                    print_ret "A quiet, blond lad of eight summers, he's fast
                        learning the ways of mountain folk.";
           ],
           life [;
              Give:
                score = score + 1;
                move noun to self;
                print_ret "~Thank you, Papa.~";
              Talk:
                if (location == marketplace)
                    print_ret "~Stay calm, my son, and trust in God.~";
                else
                    print_ret "You point out a few interesting sights.";
           ],
           before [;
              Examine,Listen,Salute,Talk:
                return false;
              FireAt:
                if (location == marketplace) {
                    if (BowOrArrow(second) == true) {
                        deadflag = 3;
                        print_ret "Oops! Surely you didn't mean to do that?";
                    }
                    return true;
                }
                else
                    return false;
              default:
                if (location == marketplace)
                    print_ret "Your guards won't permit it.";
                else
                    return false;
           ],
           found_in [; return true; ],
    has    male proper scenery transparent;

His attributes are :attr:`male` (he's your son, after all), :attr:`proper` (so the
interpreter doesn't mention "the your son"), :attr:`scenery` (so he's not
listed in every room description), and :attr:`transparent` (because you see
right through him).  No, that's wrong: a :attr:`transparent` object isn't made
of glass; it's one whose possessions are visible to you.  We've done that
because we'd still like to be able to EXAMINE APPLE even when Walter is
carrying it.  Without the :attr:`transparent` attribute, it would be as though
the apple was in his pocket or otherwise out of sight; the interpreter
would reply "You can't see any such thing".

.. Generated by autoindex
.. index::
   pair: found_in; library property

Walter has a :prop:`found_in` property which automatically moves him to the
player's location on each turn.  We can get away with this because in such
a short and simple game, he does indeed follow you everywhere.  In a more
realistic model world, NPCs often move around independently, but we don't
need such complexity here.

Several of Walter's properties test whether ``(location == marketplace)``;
that is, is the player (and hence Walter) currently in that room?  The
events in the marketplace are such that specialised responses are more
appropriate there than our standard ones.

.. Generated by autoindex
.. index::
   pair: Give; library action
   pair: before; library property
   pair: score; library variable

Walter's :prop:`life` property responds to :act:`Give` (as in GIVE APPLE TO
WALTER) and Talk (as in TALK TO YOUR SON); during :act:`Give`, we increment
the library variable :var:`score`, thus rewarding the player's generous
good nature.  His :prop:`before` property is perhaps a little confusing.
It's saying:

.. Generated by autoindex
.. index::
   pair: Examine; library action
   pair: Listen; library action
   pair: Salute; library action

#. The :act:`Examine`, :act:`Listen`, :act:`Salute` and :act:`Talk` actions
   are always available (a :act:`Talk` action then gets passed to Walter's
   :prop:`life` property).

.. Generated by autoindex
.. index::
   pair: FireAt; library action

#. The :act:`FireAt` action is permitted in the ``marketplace``, albeit
   with unfortunate results.  Elsewhere, it triggers the standard
   :act:`FireAt` response of "Unthinkable!"

#. All other actions are prevented in the ``marketplace``, and allowed to
   run their standard course (thanks to the ``return false``) elsewhere.

.. Generated by autoindex
.. index::
   pair: deadflag; library variable

The apple's moment of glory has arrived!  Its :prop:`before` property
responds to the :act:`FireAt` action by setting :var:`deadflag` to 2.  When
that happens, the game is over; the player has won.

.. include:: /config/typethis.rst

::

  Object   apple "apple"
    with   name 'apple',
           description [;
                if (location == marketplace)
                    print_ret "At this distance you can barely see it.";
                else
                    print_ret "The apple is blotchy green and brown.";
           ],
           before [;
              Drop:
                print_ret "An apple is worth quite a bit --
                    better hang on to it.";
              Eat:
                print_ret "Helga intended it for Walter...";
              FireAt:
                if (location == marketplace) {
                    if (BowOrArrow(second) == true) {
                        score = score + 1;
                        deadflag = 2;
                        print_ret "Slowly and steadily, you place an arrow in
                            the bow, draw back the string, and take aim with
                            more care than ever in your life. Holding your
                            breath, unblinking, fearful, you release the
                            arrow. It flies across the square towards your
                            son, and drives the apple against the trunk of
                            the tree. The crowd erupts with joy;
                            Gessler looks distinctly disappointed.";
                    }
                    return true;
                }
                else
                    return false;
           ];

And with that, we've defined all of the objects.  In doing so, we've added
a whole load of new nouns and adjectives to the game's dictionary, but no
verbs.  That's the final task.

.. _verbs:

Verbs, verbs, verbs
===================

.. Generated by autoindex
.. index::
   pair: Talk; library action

The Inform library delivers a standard set of nearly a hundred actions
which players can perform; around twenty of those are "meta-actions" (like
SAVE and QUIT) aimed at the interpreter itself, and the remainder operate
within the model world.  Having such a large starting set is a great
blessing; it means that many of the actions which players might attempt are
already catered for, either by the interpreter doing something useful, or
by explaining why it's unable to.  Nevertheless, most games find the need
to define additional actions, and "William Tell" is no exception.  We'll be
adding four actions of our own: :act:`Untie`, :act:`Salute`, :act:`FireAt`
and :act:`Talk`.

.. rubric:: Untie

It's not the most useful action, but it is the simplest.  In the
marketplace, when Walter is lashed to the tree, it's possible that players
might be tempted to try to UNTIE WALTER; unlikely, but as we've said
before, anticipating the improbable is part of the craft of IF.  For this,
and for all new actions, two things are required.  We need a grammar
definition, spelling out the structure of the English sentences which we're
prepared to accept:

.. include:: /config/typethis.rst

::

      Verb 'untie' 'unfasten' 'unfix' 'free' 'release'
          * noun                          -> Untie;

and we need a routine to handle the action in the default situation (where
the action isn't intercepted by an object's :prop:`before` property).

.. include:: /config/typethis.rst

::

      [ UntieSub; print_ret "You really shouldn't try that."; ];

The grammar is less complex than it perhaps at first appears:

#. The English verbs UNTIE, UNFASTEN, UNFIX, FREE and RELEASE are
   synonymous.

#. The asterisk ``*`` indicates the start of a pattern defining what
   word(s) might follow the verb.

#. In this example, there's only one pattern: the ":var:`noun`" token
   represents an object which is currently in scope -- in the same room as
   the player.

#. The ``->`` indicates an action to be triggered.

.. Generated by autoindex
.. index::
   pair: Untie; library action

#. If players type something that matches the pattern -- one of those five
   verbs followed by an object in scope -- the interpreter triggers an
   :act:`Untie` action, which by default is handled by a routine having the
   same name as the action, with ``Sub`` appended.  In this example, that's
   the ``UntieSub`` routine.

#. The grammar is laid out this way just to make it easier to read.  All those
   spaces aren't important; we could equally have typed::

       Verb 'untie' 'unfasten' 'unfix' 'free' 'release' * noun -> Untie;

We can illustrate how this works in the Altdorf street:

.. code-block:: transcript

   A street in Altdorf
   The narrow street runs north towards the town square. Local folk are pouring
   into the town through the gate to the south, shouting greetings, offering
   produce for sale, exchanging news, enquiring with exaggerated disbelief about
   the prices of the goods displayed by merchants whose stalls make progress even
   more difficult.

   "Stay close to me, son," you say, "or you'll get lost among all these people."

   >UNTIE
   What do you want to untie?

   >UNFASTEN THE DOG
   You can't see any such thing.

   >UNTIE THE PEOPLE
   You don't need to worry about the local people.

   >UNFIX YOUR SON
   You really shouldn't try that.

The illustration shows four attempted usages of the new action.  In the
first, the player omits to mention an object; the interpreter knows (from
that :var:`noun` in the grammar which implies that the action needs a
direct object) that something is missing, so it issues a helpful prompt.
In the second, the player mentions an object that isn't in scope (in fact,
there's no dog anywhere in the game, but the interpreter isn't about to
give *that* away to the player).  In the third, the object is in scope, but
its :prop:`before` property intercepts the :act:`Untie` action (and indeed,
since this object is of the class ``Prop``, all actions apart from
:act:`Examine`) to display a customised rejection message.  Finally, the
fourth usage refers to an object which *doesn't* intercept the action, so
the interpreter calls the default action handler -- ``UntieSub`` -- which
displays a general-purpose refusal to perform the action.

The principles presented here are those that you should generally employ:
write a generic action handler which either refuses to do anything (see,
for example SQUASH or HIT), or performs the action without affecting the
state of the model world (see, for example, JUMP or WAVE); then, intercept
that non-action (generally using a :prop:`before` property) for those objects
which might make a legitimate target for the action, and instead provide a
more specific response, either performing or rejecting the action.

In the case of :act:`Untie`, there are no objects which can be untied in
this game, so we always generate a refusal of some sort.

.. rubric:: Salute

.. Generated by autoindex
.. index::
   pair: Salute; library action

The next action is :act:`Salute`, provided in case Wilhelm chooses to defer
to the hat on the pole.  Here's the default action handler:

.. include:: /config/typethis.rst

::

     [ SaluteSub;
         if (noun has animate) print_ret (The) noun, " acknowledges you.";
         print_ret (The) noun, " takes no notice.";
     ];

You'll notice that this is slightly more intelligent than our :act:`Untie`
handler, since it produces different responses depending on whether the
object being saluted -- stored in the :var:`noun` variable -- is
:attr:`animate` or not.  But it's basically doing the same job.  And here's
the grammar:

.. include:: /config/typethis.rst

::

     Verb 'bow' 'nod' 'kowtow' 'genuflect'
         * 'at'/'to'/'towards' noun      -> Salute;

     Verb 'salute' 'greet' 'acknowledge'
         * noun                          -> Salute;

This grammar says that:

#. The English verbs BOW, NOD, KOWTOW, GENUFLECT, SALUTE, GREET and
   ACKNOWLEDGE are synonymous.

#. The first four (but not the last three) can then be followed by any of
   the prepositions AT, TO or TOWARDS: words in apostrophes ``'...'`` are
   matched literally, with the slash ``/`` separating alternatives.

#. After that comes the name of an object which is currently in scope -- in
   the same room as the player.

#. If players type something that matches one of those patterns, the
   interpreter triggers a :act:`Salute` action, which by default is dealt
   with by the ``SaluteSub`` routine.

So, we're allowing BOW AT HAT and KOWTOW TOWARDS HAT, but not simply NOD
HAT.  We're allowing SALUTE HAT but not GREET TO HAT.  It's not perfect,
but it's a fair attempt at defining some new verbs to handle salutation.

But suppose that we think of still other ways in which players might
attempt this (remember, they don't know which verbs we've defined; they're
just stabbing in the dark, trying out things that seem as though they ought
to work).  How about PAY HOMAGE TO HAT, or maybe WAVE AT HAT?  They sound
pretty reasonable, don't they?  Except that, if we'd written::

    Verb 'bow' 'nod' 'kowtow' 'genuflect' 'wave'
        * 'at'/'to'/'towards' noun      -> Salute;

we'd have caused a compilation error: two different verb definitions refer
to "wave".  ``Grammar.h``, one of the library files whose contents a
beginner might find useful to study, contains these lines::

    Verb 'give' 'pay' 'offer' 'feed'
        * held 'to' creature              -> Give
        * creature held                   -> Give reverse
        * 'over' held 'to' creature       -> Give;

    Verb 'wave'
        *                                 -> WaveHands
        * noun                            -> Wave;

The problem is that the verbs PAY and WAVE are already defined by the
library, and Inform's rule is that a verb can appear in only one ``Verb``
definition.  The wrong solution: edit ``Grammar.h`` to *physically* add
lines to the existing definitions (it's almost never a good idea to make
changes to the standard library files).  The right solution: use ``Extend``
to *logically* add those lines.  If we write this in our source file:

.. include:: /config/typethis.rst

::

    Extend 'give'
        * 'homage' 'to' noun              -> Salute;

    Extend 'wave'
        * 'at' noun                       -> Salute;

then the effect is exactly as if we'd edited ``Grammar.h`` to read like
this::

    Verb 'give' 'pay' 'offer' 'feed'
        * held 'to' creature             ->   Give
        * creature held                  ->   Give reverse
        * 'over' held 'to' creature      ->   Give
        * 'homage' 'to' noun             ->   Salute;

    Verb 'wave'
        *                                -> WaveHands
        * noun                           -> Wave
        * 'at' noun                      -> Salute;

and now players can PAY (or GIVE, or OFFER) HOMAGE to any object.  (Because
GIVE, PAY, OFFER and FEED are defined as synonyms, players can also FEED
HOMAGE, but it's unlikely that anybody will notice this minor aberration;
players are usually too busy trying to figure out *logical* possibilities.)

.. rubric:: FireAt

As usual, we'll first show you the default handler for this action:

.. include:: /config/typethis.rst

::

     [ FireAtSub;
         if (noun == nothing)
             print_ret "What, just fire off an arrow at random?";
         if (BowOrArrow(second) == true)
             print_ret "Unthinkable!";
     ];

.. note::

   Some designers frown on the use of a rhetorical question like that,
   since it may provoke a reply from the player.  Admittedly the default
   response from YES and NO covers the situation, but it might be better
   design practice to reword the message as a statement rather than a
   question.

Here is the associated grammar:

.. include:: /config/typethis.rst

::

     Verb 'fire' 'shoot' 'aim'
         *                                ->   FireAt
         * noun                           ->   FireAt
         * 'at' noun                      ->   FireAt
         * 'at' noun 'with' noun          ->   FireAt
         * noun 'with' noun               ->   FireAt
         * noun 'at' noun                 ->   FireAt reverse;

This is the most complex grammar that we'll write, and the first one
offering several different options for the words which follow the initial
verb.  The first line of grammar::

         *                                -> FireAt

is going to let us type FIRE (or SHOOT, or AIM) by itself.  The second
line::

         * noun                           -> FireAt

supports FIRE BOW or FIRE ARROW (or something less sensible like
FIRE TREE).  The third line::

         * 'at' noun                      -> FireAt

accepts FIRE AT APPLE, FIRE AT TREE, and so on.  Note that there's only one
semicolon in all of the grammar, right at the very end.

.. Generated by autoindex
.. index::
   pair: noun; library variable
   pair: second; library variable

The first two statements in ``FireAtSub`` deal with the first line of
grammar: FIRE (or SHOOT, or AIM) by itself.  If the player types just that,
both :var:`noun` and :var:`second` will contain ``nothing``, so we reject the
attempt with the "at random?" message.  Otherwise, we've got at least a
:var:`noun` value, and possibly a :var:`second` value also, so we make our
standard check that :var:`second` is something that can be fired, and then
reject the attempt with the "Unthinkable!"  message.

There are a couple of reasons why you might find this grammar a bit tricky.
The first is that on some lines the word :var:`noun` appears twice: you need
to remember that in this context :var:`noun` is a parsing token which matches
any single object visible to the player.  Thus, the line::

     * 'at' noun 'with' noun        -> FireAt

is matching FIRE AT :samp:`{some_visible_target}` WITH
:samp:`{some_visible_weapon}`; perhaps confusingly, the value of the target
object is then stored in variable :var:`noun`, and the value of the weapon
object in variable :var:`second`.

The second difficulty may be the final grammar line.  Whereas on the
preceding lines, the first :var:`noun` matches a target object and the second
:var:`noun`, if present, matches a weapon object, that final line matches FIRE
:samp:`{some_visible_weapon}` AT :samp:`{some_visible_target}` -- the two
objects are mentioned in the wrong sequence.  If we did nothing, our
``FireAtSub`` would get pretty confused at this point, but we can swap the
two objects back into the expected order by adding that ``reverse`` keyword
at the end of the line, and then ``FireAtSub`` will work the same in all
cases.

.. Generated by autoindex
.. index::
   pair: FireAt; library action

Before leaving the :act:`FireAt` action, we'll add one more piece of
grammar:

.. include:: /config/typethis.rst

::

      Extend 'attack' replace
          * noun                          -> FireAt;

This uses the ``Extend`` directive which we've just met, this time with a
``replace`` keyword.  The effect is to substitute the new grammar defined
here for that contained in ``Grammar.h``, so that ATTACK, KILL, MURDER and
all the other violent synonyms now trigger our :act:`FireAt` action instead
of the Library's standard :act:`Attack` action.  We're doing this so that,
in the Marketplace, KILL GESSLER and MURDER WALTER have the same
unfortunate results as FIRE AT GESSLER and SHOOT WALTER.

.. rubric:: Talk

.. Generated by autoindex
.. index::
   pair: Answer; library action
   pair: Ask; library action
   pair: Talk; library action
   pair: Tell; library action

The final action that we define -- :act:`Talk` -- provides a simple system
of canned conversation, a low-key replacement for the standard
:act:`Answer`, :act:`Ask` and :act:`Tell` actions.  The default ``TalkSub``
handler is closely based on ``TellSub`` (defined in library file
``verblibm.h``, should you be curious), and does three things:

#. Deals with TALK TO ME or TALK TO MYSELF.

.. Generated by autoindex
.. index::
   pair: life; library property
   pair: true; library constant

#. Checks (a) whether the creature being talked to has a :prop:`life`
   property, (b) whether that property is prepared to process a :act:`Talk`
   action, and (c) if the :act:`Talk` processing returns :const:`true`.  If
   all three checks succeed then ``TalkSub`` need do nothing more; if one
   or more of them fails then ``TalkSub`` simply...

#. Displays a general "nothing to say" refusal to talk.

   .. include:: /config/typethis.rst

   ::

     [ TalkSub;
         if (noun == player) print_ret "Nothing you hear surprises you.";
         if (RunLife(noun,##Talk) ~= false) return;
         print_ret "At the moment, you can't think of anything to say.";
     ];

   .. note::

      That second condition ``(RunLife(noun,##Talk) ~= false)`` is a bit of
      a stumbling block, since it uses ``RunLife`` -- an undocumented
      internal library routine -- to offer the :act:`Talk` action to the
      NPC's :prop:`life` property.  We've decided to use it in exactly the
      same way as the :act:`Tell` action does, without worrying too much
      about how it works (though it looks as though ``RunLife`` returns
      some :const:`true` value if the :prop:`life` property has intercepted
      the action, :const:`false` if it hasn't).  The ``~=`` operator means
      "not equal to".

The grammar is straightforward::

     Verb 'talk' 't//' 'converse' 'chat' 'gossip'
         * 'to'/'with' creature          -> Talk
         * creature                      -> Talk;

Notice the use of ``'t//'`` to define T as a synonym for TALK, another way
to make life a little easier for the player.  (Actually, doing this
introduces a minor problem: if the player types just T then the library
prompts "Whom do you want to t to?"  The fix for this involves enhancing an
internal library routine called ``LanguageVerb`` -- not complex, but a
little too heavy for our second game.)

Here's the simplest :act:`Talk` handler that we've seen -- it's from
Gessler the governor.  Any attempt to TALK TO GESSLER will provoke "You
cannot bring yourself to speak to him". ::

     life [;
         Talk: print_ret "You cannot bring yourself to speak to him.";
     ],

Walter's :act:`Talk` handler is only slightly more involved::

     life [;
         Talk:
             if (location == marketplace)
                 print_ret "~Stay calm, my son, and trust in God.~";
         print_ret "You point out a few interesting sights.";
     ],

And Helga's is the most sophisticated (though that isn't saying much)::

   times_spoken_to 0,         ! for counting the conversation topics
   life [;
      Talk:
        self.times_spoken_to = self.times_spoken_to + 1;
        switch (self.times_spoken_to) {
          1: score = score + 1;
             print_ret "You warmly thank Helga for the apple.";
          2: print_ret "~See you again soon.~";
          default:
             return false;
        }
   ],

This handler uses Helga's :prop:`times_spoken_to` property -- not a library
property, it's one that we invented, like the
:prop:`mid_square.warnings_count` and :prop:`pole.has_been_saluted`
properties -- to keep track of what's been said, permitting two snatches of
conversation (and awarding a point) before falling back on the embarrassing
silences implied by "You can't think of anything to say".

That's the end of our little fable; you'll find a transcript and the full
source in :doc:`/appendices/c`.  And now, it's time to meet -- Captain
Fate!