Copyright & Licensing
---------------------
-You can redistribute and/or modify this file under the terms of the
-GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software
-Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or at your option) any
+You can redistribute and/or modify this file under the terms of the
+GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software
+Foundation, either version 3 of the License, or at your option) any
later version.
-This file makes use of International Phonetic Alphabet:
+This file makes use of International Phonetic Alphabet:
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet>
-Uju is written in a left-to-right pattern, from the top to the bottom of
-the page. The alphabet uses the Latin script.
+Uju is written in a left-to-right pattern, from the top to the bottom
+of the page. The alphabet uses the Latin script.
Phonology
---------
+---------------------+--------+----------+-------------+----------+--------------+-------+-------------+--------+------------+---------+
| ↓Manner/Place→ | Dental | Bilabial | Labiodental | Alveolar | Postalveolar | Velar | Labio-velar | Uvular | Pharyngeal | Glottal |
-+=====================+========+==========+=============+==========+==============+=======+=============+========+======================+
++=====================+========+==========+=============+==========+==============+=======+=============+========+============+=========+
| Stop | | b | | | | k | | q | | ʔ |
-+---------------------+--------+----------+-------------+----------+--------------+-------+-------------+--------+----------------------+
++---------------------+--------+----------+-------------+----------+--------------+-------+-------------+--------+------------+---------+
| Nasal | | m | | n | | | | | | |
-+---------------------+--------+----------+-------------+----------+--------------+-------+-------------+--------+----------------------+
++---------------------+--------+----------+-------------+----------+--------------+-------+-------------+--------+------------+---------+
| Affricate | | | | | dʒ | | | | | |
-+---------------------+--------+----------+-------------+----------+--------------+-------+-------------+--------+----------------------+
++---------------------+--------+----------+-------------+----------+--------------+-------+-------------+--------+------------+---------+
| Fricative | θ ð | | v | s | ʃ | x ɣ | | | ħ | h |
-+---------------------+--------+----------+-------------+----------+--------------+-------+-------------+--------+----------------------+
++---------------------+--------+----------+-------------+----------+--------------+-------+-------------+--------+------------+---------+
| Approximant | | | | | | | w | | ʕ | |
-+---------------------+--------+----------+-------------+----------+--------------+-------+-------------+--------+----------------------+
++---------------------+--------+----------+-------------+----------+--------------+-------+-------------+--------+------------+---------+
| Trill | | | | r | | | | | | |
-+---------------------+--------+----------+-------------+----------+--------------+-------+-------------+--------+----------------------+
++---------------------+--------+----------+-------------+----------+--------------+-------+-------------+--------+------------+---------+
| Lateral approximant | | | | l | | | | | | |
-+---------------------+--------+----------+-------------+----------+--------------+-------+-------------+--------+----------------------+
++---------------------+--------+----------+-------------+----------+--------------+-------+-------------+--------+------------+---------+
Vowel inventory: /a e i u ɨ ʊ/
| Low | | | a | | |
+-----------+-------+------------+---------+-----------+------+
-Syllable structure: Up to three consonants before and after a vowel:
+Syllable structure: Up to three consonants before and after a vowel:
(C)(C)(C)V(C)(C)(C)
-Word stress: No fixed stress
+Stress pattern: No fixed stress
-Word initial consonants: b, dʒ, h, k, l, m, n, q, r, s, v, w, x, ð,
- ɣ, ʃ, θ
+Word initial consonants: b, dʒ, h, k, l, m, n, q, r, s, v, w, x, ð, ɣ,
+ ʃ, θ
-Mid-word consonants: b, bl, dʒ, h, hw, k, ks, kw, l, m, mb, n,
- nh, nl, ns, nv, r, rk, rm, rs, s, v, w, x,
- ð, ɣ, ʃ, ʔ, θ
+Mid-word consonants: b, bl, dʒ, h, hw, k, ks, kw, l, m, mb, n, nh,
+ nl, ns, nv, r, rk, rm, rs, s, v, w, x, ð, ɣ,
+ ʃ, ʔ, θ
Word final consonants: b, dʒ, h, l, n, r, s, w, x, ð, ɣ, ʃ, ʔ, θ
Grammar
-------
-Sentence order: Sentence order is Subject-Verb-Object-Oblique.
+Sentence order is: Subject-Verb-Object-Oblique.
Adjectives: Adjectives (and modifying nouns) occur to the left of
the noun.
Gender in nouns: Nouns have no gender.
-Adpositions: Postpositions. The preferential order of postpositional
+Adpositions: Postpositions. The preferential order of postpositional
phrases is Time-Manner-Place:
> "I am travelling on Monday [time] by car [manner] to Seoul [place]."
Plurals are optional for non-human nouns.
+### Definite article
+
++------------+--------------------+-----------+--------------------+------------+
+| | Singular | | Plural | |
++============+====================+===========+====================+============+
+| Nominative | the [man] | hih /hih/ | the [men] | mush /mʊʃ/ |
++------------+--------------------+-----------+--------------------+------------+
+| Accusative | the [man] | xix /ɣiɣ/ | the [men] | ib /ib/ |
++------------+--------------------+-----------+--------------------+------------+
+| Genitive | the [man's] | xex /xex/ | the [men's] | ub /ʊb/ |
++------------+--------------------+-----------+--------------------+------------+
+| Dative | to the [man] | nux /nux/ | to the [men] | ux /ʊɣ/ |
++------------+--------------------+-----------+--------------------+------------+
+| Locative | in/at/by the [man] | uh /uh/ | in/at/by the [men] | ax /aɣ/ |
++------------+--------------------+-----------+--------------------+------------+
+
+Uses of definite article that differ from English:
+
+- Definite article can be omitted
+ Example: 'I am going to jacuzzi'
+
+- Used to talk about countable nouns in general
+ Example: English's 'I like cats' would translate to 'I like the
+ cats'
+
+- Not used for mass (uncountable) nouns
+ 'Walking in the mud' would always translate to 'Walking in mud'.
+
+- Used for personal names in third person: 'The Maria has left for
+ school'
+
+- Used with place names: 'The London'
+
+### Indefinite article
+
++------------+--------------------+------------+-----------------------+------------+
+| | Singular | | Plural | |
++============+====================+============+=======================+============+
+| Nominative | a [man] | xaj /ɣadʒ/ | some [men] | haj /hadʒ/ |
++------------+--------------------+------------+-----------------------+------------+
+| Accusative | a [man] | haj /hadʒ/ | some [men] | kex /kex/ |
++------------+--------------------+------------+-----------------------+------------+
+| Genitive | a [man's] | ruj /rʊdʒ/ | some [men's] | hix /hix/ |
++------------+--------------------+------------+-----------------------+------------+
+| Dative | to a [man] | lux /lʊx/ | to some [men] | jin /dʒin/ |
++------------+--------------------+------------+-----------------------+------------+
+| Locative | in/at/by a [man] | kux /kɨx/ | in/at/by some [men] | jun /dʒɨn/ |
++------------+--------------------+------------+-----------------------+------------+
+
+### Personal pronouns
+
++--------+-----------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+------------------+---------------+------------------+
+| | Nominative| | Accusative | | Genitive | | Dative | |
++========+===========+============+============+============+==============+==================+===============+==================+
+| 1st.sg | I | i /i/ | me | im /im/ | mine | i ux /i uɣ/ | to me | i ax /i aɣ/ |
++--------+-----------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+------------------+---------------+------------------+
+| 2nd.sg | you | xuj /ɣudʒ/ | you | xudh /ɣuð/ | yours | xuj ux /ɣudʒ uɣ/ | to you | xuj ax /ɣudʒ aɣ/ |
++--------+-----------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+------------------+---------------+------------------+
+| 3rd.sg | he/she/it | xax /ɣax/ | him/her/it | xus /ɣʊs/ | his/hers/its | xax ux /ɣax uɣ/ | to him/her/it | xax ax /ɣax aɣ/ |
++--------+-----------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+------------------+---------------+------------------+
+| 1st.pl | we | mi /mi/ | us | mu /mɨ/ | ours | mi ux /mi uɣ/ | to us | mi ax /mi aɣ/ |
++--------+-----------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+------------------+---------------+------------------+
+| 2nd.pl | you | kun /kʊn/ | you | kun /kun/ | yours | kun ux /kʊn uɣ/ | to you | kun ax /kʊn aɣ/ |
++--------+-----------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+------------------+---------------+------------------+
+| 3rd.pl | they | xan /xan/ | them | xab /xab/ | theirs | xan ux /xan uɣ/ | to them | xan ax /xan aɣ/ |
++--------+-----------+------------+------------+------------+--------------+------------------+---------------+------------------+
+
+### Verbs
+
++------------------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+
+| ↓Perfective/Indicative mood→ | Past | Present | Future |
++==============================+==============================+==============================+==============================+
+| | studied | study | will study |
++------------------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+
+| 1st.sg | No affix | No affix | Suffix: -u /-ɨ/ |
+| | xakwux /ˈɣakwuɣ/ | xakwux /ˈɣakwuɣ/ | xakwuxu /ˈɣakwuɣɨ/ |
++------------------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+
+| 2nd.sg | No affix | No affix | Suffix: -(u)x /-(ɨ)ɣ/ |
+| | xakwux /ˈɣakwuɣ/ | xakwux /ɣaˈkwuɣ/ | xakwuxux /ɣaˈkwuɣɨɣ/ |
++------------------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+
+| 3rd.sg | No affix | No affix | Suffix: -a /-a/ |
+| | xakwux /ˈɣakwuɣ/ | xakwux /ɣaˈkwuɣ/ | xakwuxa /ˈɣakwuɣa/ |
++------------------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+
+| 1st.pl | No affix | No affix | Suffix: -(i)sh /-(i)ʃ/ |
+| | xakwux /ˈɣakwuɣ/ | xakwux /ˈɣakwuɣ/ | xakwuxish /ɣaˈkwuɣiʃ/ |
++------------------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+
+| 2nd.pl | No affix | No affix | Suffix: -(u)vu /ɨvɨ/ |
+| | xakwux /ɣaˈkwuɣ/ | xakwux /ˈɣakwuɣ/ | xakwuxuvu /ɣakwuɣɨˈvɨ/ |
++------------------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+
+| 3rd.pl | No affix | No affix | Suffix: -(u)x /-(ɨ)ɣ/ |
+| | xakwux /ˈɣakwuɣ/ | xakwux /ˈɣakwuɣ/ | xakwuxux /ɣaˈkwuɣɨɣ/ |
++------------------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+------------------------------+
+
+### Perfect aspect
+
+'have studied'
+
+Uses the word for 'have' before main verb.
+
+### Progressive aspect
+
+'am studying'
+
+Uses the word 'do' before main verb.
+
+### Imperative
+
+'study!' (as a command)
+
+Uses the same conjugation as 2nd-person present-tense.
+
+### Negation
+
+Uses the particle rudh /rʊð/ before main verb phrase.
+
### Morphological derivations
Entries follow the format of:
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet>
Noun-to-verb: Prefix: j(u)- /dʒ(u)-/
+
Verb-to-noun: Suffix: -(i)x /-(i)x/
+
Noun-to-adjective: Prefix: lu- /lʊ-/
+
Adjective-to-noun: Prefix: lu- /lʊ-/
+
Adjective-to-adverb: Suffix: -(e)b /-(e)b/
+
Verb-to-adjective: Suffix: -(u)sh /-(ɨ)ʃ/
Diminutive: Suffix: -(u)ne /ɨne/
+
Augmentative: Suffix: -(e)hu /ehɨ/
Agent noun (e.g. paint to painter): Suffix: -(u)hu /uhʊ/
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